Cookbook:Flour
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Flours and meals are the ground products of cereal grains or other starchy food sources.[1][2][3] In English, the word "flour" used alone often refers to wheat flour,[4][5] especially all-purpose flour. Note that while flours are starchy, they should not be confused with refined powdered starches.
Characteristics
[edit | edit source]Texture
[edit | edit source]Generally speaking, flour and meal differ only in coarseness.[6] Where flours are typically a finely ground powder that can be easily sifted through a mesh, meals tend to have a larger particle size. Note that in some cases the distinction is important, such as with corn flour versus corn meal, while in other cases the terms flour and meal are used interchangeably, such as with almond flour versus almond meal. Note also that even within the boundaries of meal and flour, there may be different grades according to coarseness.[4]
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Components
[edit | edit source]A typical grain has three primary parts: the bran, endosperm, and germ. The bran is the outermost layer and has high fiber and protein contents.[7] Next, the endosperm makes up the bulk of the grain, and it consists mainly of starch with some protein.[7] Finally, the germ is the smallest portion and contains largely protein and fat.[7]
When flour is made from grains, the manufacturer can decide which parts of the grain to include (and in what ratios), and this in turn governs the characteristics of the resulting flour.[8] For example, refined white flour typically consists only of the endosperm,[8][6] which makes it very starchy and not very fibrous. On the other hand, whole-grain flours incorporate the entire seed[6] and therefore have more of a balance between fiber, starch, protein, and fat.[8] Note that this principle does not apply to non-grain flours, such as cassava flour.
The relative contents of fiber, starch, protein, and fat in a given flour play a large role in its keeping and cooking qualities. In addition, the specific sub-types of these can have a major role. For example, gluten is a specific type of protein found in significant quantities in wheat flour,[2][7] and it gives wheat doughs their characteristic viscoelastic properties.
Color
[edit | edit source]A flour's color depends largely on the ingredient used to make it, as well as the parts used. In most cases, flour will fall along a spectrum from brown to tan/cream-colored. The inclusion of bran will darken the color—whole grain flours are therefore darker than refined.
Varieties
[edit | edit source]Broadly speaking, any starchy plant material can be dried and ground to flour, from grains to tubers and even fruits.[6] These different flours can contribute their own distinct characters to a recipe.[7]
Grain flours are the most common globally, with wheat dominating in mainstream Western society.[8] Other grains used for flour include rye, barley, oats, rice, sorghum, buckwheat, quinoa, amaranth, millet, teff, triticale, and corn.[1][8][9] Pseudocereals also fall into this category, with amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa used as well to make flour.[7] Pulses commonly ground to flour include chickpea, pea, and soy.[1][5] These flours tend to be relatively high in protein and fiber. Many roots and tubers like potato and cassava can be dried and ground to flour.[6] They tend to be quite starchy. Similarly, particularly starchy fruits like plantains and bananas, may also be dried and ground to flour. Another group commonly used for flour is nuts. These flours tend to be high in fat and protein, though it can depend on the type—chestnuts, for example, are quite starchy for nuts.[5]
Selection and storage
[edit | edit source]When selecting flour, some individuals may care about how it was ground. Commercially available flours are often either roller-milled or stone-ground. Some prefer stone-ground flour, with the argument that this method keeps the flour cooler and better preserves flavor.[5]
Proper storage of flour will depend largely on the type. Highly refined flours with minimal fat content (e.g. white wheat flour) can be stored in a dry area at room temperature. These flours are quite stable and will last for months to years. Flours with higher fat contents (e.g. whole-grain flours, nut flours) have a shorter shelf life due to the risk of rancidity. For these flours, it is essential to store them in an airtight container away from light and heat, and storage in the freezer will significantly extend their lifetime.[3] Additionally, flours are very good at absorbing odors from the environment, so it's best to either keep them in a sealed container or away from strong odors entirely.[3]
Flours can sometimes become contaminated with flour beetles or other bugs in storage. If the contamination is minor, placing the flour in the freezer for several days will kill the bugs, which can then be sifted out. With significant infestation, however, you're better off discarding the flour, since the quality will have deteriorated.
Techniques
[edit | edit source]Sifting
[edit | edit source]Many recipes will call for sifting flour, which offers two benefits. If there is a risk of contamination with foreign objects (e.g. stones, bugs, twigs), sifting effectively removes them for the flour.[10] The second reason is to standardize volumetric measurements—flour settles during storage, and the degree of settling can vary. Sifting evenly aerates the flour, which allows for more consistency when measuring by volume.
Use
[edit | edit source]Flour serves several purposes in cooking. Aside from basic nutritional content, flours provide structure to foods, especially when combined with water and heated.[3][11] They absorb and thicken liquids,[1][3] and they can provide slight emulsification.[12] They also contribute a fair amount of flavor, especially when whole grains or particularly flavorful ingredients (like nuts) are used.[11] By absorbing moisture, flours can even be used to prevent sticking, and they can act as a breading on fried or baked foods.[13]
Flours are commonly combined with liquid and cooked to make breads, noodles, and porridges, all of which are staple foods around the world. They can also be used to create more elaborate confections and sweets—cakes, cookies, pastries, and more all rely on flour.[4]
Substitution
[edit | edit source]Not all flours can be readily substituted for each other, since they do not have identical properties. For example, wheat flour is the only variety with considerable gluten content—substituting it with another flour necessarily lowers the gluten content and will change the texture. In fact, the entire field of gluten-free baking is dedicated to blending ingredients in order to approximate products traditionally made with wheat.[14] However, if two flours have very similar properties (e.g. gluten/protein/fiber/starch contents), they may reasonably substitute for each other. For example, almond flour and hazelnut flour are reasonably similar and can be substituted with little difference aside from flavor.
Recipes
[edit | edit source]References
[edit | edit source]- ↑ a b c d Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2012-04-11). The Culinarian: A Kitchen Desk Reference. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-18603-3.
- ↑ a b The Chefs of Le Cordon Bleu (2011-12-02). Le Cordon Bleu Patisserie and Baking Foundations. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4390-5713-1.
- ↑ a b c d e Labensky, Sarah; Martel, Priscilla; Damme, Eddy Van (2015-01-06). On Baking: A Textbook of Baking and Pastry Fundamentals, Updated Edition. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-388675-7.
- ↑ a b c Goldstein, Darra (2015-01-01). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199313396.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-931339-6.
- ↑ a b c d Davidson, Alan (2014-01-01). Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199677337.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7.
- ↑ a b c d e Association, Research Chefs (2016-02-29). Culinology: The Intersection of Culinary Art and Food Science. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-48134-9.
- ↑ a b c d e f Figoni, Paula I. (2010-11-09). How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-39267-6.
- ↑ a b c d e Gibson, Mark (2018-01-04). Food Science and the Culinary Arts. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-811817-7.
- ↑ Wolke, Robert L. (2011-01-12). What Einstein Told His Cook 2: The Sequel: Further Adventures in Kitchen Science. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07982-1.
- ↑ Field, Simon Quellen (2011-11-01). Culinary Reactions: The Everyday Chemistry of Cooking. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1-56976-960-7.
- ↑ a b Rinsky, Glenn; Rinsky, Laura Halpin (2008-02-28). The Pastry Chef's Companion: A Comprehensive Resource Guide for the Baking and Pastry Professional. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-00955-0.
- ↑ Wolke, Robert L.; Parrish, Marlene (2002). What Einstein Told His Cook: Kitchen Science Explained. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-01183-8.
- ↑ America, Culinary Institute of; Schneller, Thomas (2009-02-03). Kitchen Pro Series: Guide to Meat Identification, Fabrication and Utilization. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-111-78059-3.
- ↑ Zhou, Weibiao; Hui, Y. H. (2014-08-11). Bakery Products Science and Technology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-96715-6.